283-304). The implications of this finding are greatest for interventions where attitude change is the principal goal. Teaching and Learning: Bloom's taxonomy [On-line] UK: Available: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/bloomtax.htm Accessed: 17 April 2005. address students’ self-efficacy, motivation, emotions and attitudes. They learn which nutrients are found in which foods, why human bodies need these nutrients, how much of each nutrient is needed, how fat, protein, and carbohydrates should be balanced, and what can happen if nutritional needs are not met. The Affective Domain of Learning & Learning Objectives. �OvɶK�4|�
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), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. 973 0 obj outcomes, such necessary preconditions for successful learning do not guarantee that a student will actually regulate his or her learning on specific occasions. Martin, B.L. & Poole, R.A. (1983). The model must be credible to the target audience (Bednar & Levie, 1993). 1986). & McGregor, J. A source or model who appears to argue against his or her self interest is often perceived as relatively trustworthy. As with dissonance theory, social judgment theory presents attitude change as a response to the receipt of a message that is not entirely congruent with the currently held attitude. & McGregor, J. 0000005135 00000 n
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However, reinforcement remains important. Affectiveness of role playing and antiracist teaching in reducing student prejudice. In The affective domain: A resource book for media specialists (pp. APA Citation: Miller, M. (2005). An objective is a statement in specific and measurable terms that describes what the learner will know or be able to do as a result of the learning activity. Wade, B. Q)x{�ک��N6�L[Y��8��S��N�lf. 0000014620 00000 n
Therefore, in assessing attitude learning, any Likert-type scales or similar close-ended measurements should be used in tandem with more open-ended instruments. Krathwohl, Bloom and Marill (1964) developed a taxonomy of objectives which is oriented to feelings or affection. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 23 (4) 444-58. They found that white Anglo males are less likely than other groups to show positive changes as a result of diversity training initiatives and may in fact exhibit worse attitudes than they had before the intervention. Washington, DC: Gryphon House. Whether attitude learning is one component, or the central focus, of instruction, specific instructional strategies may be employed to bring it about. Affective learning outcomes involve attitudes, motivation, and values Zimbardo, P.G. Attitudes are learned or established predispositions to respond (Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991). Students whose diet and exercise habits were not consistent with good health probably experienced cognitive and affective dissonance during the lessons. cogitative skills of knowledge and understanding rather than on affective outcomes of values, attitudes and behaviours. & Johill, M. (2002). Ansolabehere, S., Behr, R. and Iyenger, S. (1993). The effect of three methods of treating motivational films upon attitudes of fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade students toward science, scientists, and scientific careers (doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1966). While that person might be pint-sized, his attitude during the terrible twos can be over ten feet tall and bulletproof. Every year, Mr. Saunders teaches his Introduction to American Government classes about the 19th Amendment, which guarantees all American women the right to vote, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which reinforces the 15th Amendment's nationwide guarantee of the right to vote. 0000007761 00000 n
Affective Domain (Attitude) 3. Instructional media, attitude formation and change: a critical review of the literature. This disturbing finding was echoed by Alderfer et al. In the next class, they watch an episode of the PBS series "Eyes on the Prize" entitled "Mississippi: Is this America?" startxref Chapter Intended Learning Outcome. The expression of these often involves statements of opinions, beliefs, or an assessment of worth (Smith & Ragan, 1999). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 62 (1), 64-78. 1. The Gateway to Educational Materials GEM provides numerous examples of lesson plans that include instructional goals in the affective domain. By motivating students to reflect on their attitudes, instruction may lead to an increase in their intensity and permanence. Although the fact that attitudes are stored separately from their related cognitions means that a person may experience a feeling without remembering the information or event that triggered it, attitudes will generally be stronger when the link between their cognitive and affective components is consciously recalled (Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991). (1984). This program depicts the efforts of black and white college student volunteers to help African American Mississippians register to vote during the "Freedom Summer of 1964." Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Ideally, this will involve making the chosen alternative attractive, showing a social group with the desired attitude, demonstrating the issue's importance, providing free choice, and establishing a wide latitude of acceptance through successive approximation (Martin & Briggs, 1986). Given the potential of negative outcomes, it is essential that this type of affective domain instruction be carefully designed and that learning be closely monitored and rigorously assessed. An observed behavior does not have to be reinforced to be learned (Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991), and the model "can be presented on film, by television, in a novel, or by other vicarious means" (Martin & Briggs, 1986, p. 28). Journal of Educational Media, 23 (2-3), 203-214. ), Instructional message design: Principles from the behavioral and cognitive sciences (pp. 0000005711 00000 n
Burkard, A., Jones, J. They research alternatives to disposable packaging and create a display of environmentally conscious choices. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. Others compare the nutritional quality of school lunch programs in their area and present recommendations for improvement to their school board. Affective-cognitive consistency theory suggests that the affective component of the attitude system may be changed by first changing the cognitive component through providing new information. Determine different levels of affective domains; 3. Edwards, A.L. Although the teachers in our introductory scenarios have not had formal training in teaching for attitude change, their classroom experiences and observations have enabled them to formulate some effective strategies to achieve their attitudinal objectives. endobj Whether they are advocating physical education classes and fresh fruit in the lunchroom, or writing and filming a rap about healthy habits, students are behaving in ways that are consistent with positive attitude change toward diet and exercise. The video helps the students model healthy habits to their parents and may inspire the parents to provide healthy food choices for their children. Attitudinal learning outcomes were evaluated using an author-developed survey with questions on perceptions in the four areas of attitudinal learning: General Learning, Cognitive Learning, Affective Learning, and Behavioral Learning. Social learning theory and the design of instructional systems. Smith, P. & Ragan, T.J. (1999). (1991). Journal of Educational Research, 86 (4), pp. This theory suggests that change in attitude position might be greater in response to the presentation of a moderate persuasive position than in response to a more extreme message. 1.Personal responsibility, 2.Ability to act in principled, ethical fashion, 3.Skill in oral and written communication, 4.Interpersonal and team skills, 5.Skills in critical thinking and problem-solving, 6.Respect for people different from oneself, 7.Ability to change, 8.Ability and desire for lifelong learning. This narrated presentation by Naomi Craver, Kristin Ruzicka, and Allison Watson (Fall, 2007). "People become more mindful when they encounter novel stimuli that do not fit established categories and when they are motivated to engage in systematic thinking, rather than lapse into mindless processing" (Zimbardo and Leippe, 1991, p. 259). "The use of successive approximations can expand the latitude of acceptance and thereby permit greater attitude change than might otherwise be possible" (Bednar & Levie, 1993, p. 295). Worksheets to assist in cre-ating affective learning outcomes are included to bring structure to an area of learning that is often challenging to articulate and measure. In D. Jonassen (Ed. Today, most researchers agree that attitudes are acquired and therefore "subject to fairly predictable change" (Simmons & Maushak, 2001, p. 84), although some researchers do believe that some attitudes may be innate or may have biological origins (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Attitude Change. 3. The video is shown at a PTA meeting, and each student receives a copy to take home. & Porter, B.C. ), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (pp. Each completes one another with respect to learners’ important domains. By the end of the week, the room is becoming a cluttered and somewhat smelly place. Mrs. Gibson will ask her students to list and discuss the material they have learned on a test, but she also hopes that they will recognize the importance of a healthy diet and improve their eating habits. Social judgment theories emphasize the role of prior attitudes in shaping attitude formation and change. Mrs. Gibson is teaching her students about foods and nutrition. Krathwohl classify affective objectives into 5 groups. 984-1016). Bednar, A. (n.d.) . (1966). The importance of this cognitive engagement for attitude change should not be underestimated. Research has shown that even rigorously tested measures of attitude such as the Quick Discrimination Index (QDI) may only be valid measures for members of a specific group (Burkard et al., 2002). What is Affective Empathy? You see, attitudesare a way of thinking, and they … During the week that they are studying this topic, nothing in her class is thrown away. Attitudes. A 1984 study by Ball-Rokeach et al. The following discussions of these instructional approaches are this author's interpretations and were not found on the Web sites provided. She also wants them to understand their own role in changing the environment and to become more thoughtful citizens of the planet. These findings also indicate that the three most important qualities such instruction should have are: the use of follow-up activities and open-ended questions; the use of realistic types of media devoid of contradictory cues; and the creation of an aroused state in the learner through emotional and intellectual involvement. These student workers serve as role models for the student viewers. 936 0 obj Bage, G. (1997). This type of competency helps learners understand how to act using ethics, morals, and values in the professional field. Attitudes can include emotions, feelings, values, and appreciation, to name a few. These behaviors are reinforced when adults listen and respond to them. Eagly, A.H. & Chaiken, S. (1993). For passive learners, instruction delivered by media may facilitate the rapid acquisition of complex affective behaviors more effectively than live demonstrations (McDonald & Kielsmeier, 1970). The overflowing trash bags create cognitive dissonance, and their research helps them develop attractive dissonance-reducing choices. ED 194 073). McDonald, F. & Kielsmeier, C. (1972). Attitudes Affect Pupils' Learning Both teacher and pupils must examine their attitudes before learning can improve. & Stern, H.W. The survey also examined learner goals for enrolling in the course and their perceptions of the instructional methods implemented in the course. He hopes they will appreciate the struggle by women, African Americans, and other previously disenfranchised groups to overcome barriers to such participation, and that they will also register to vote if they have not already done so. These approaches are ideally used in tandem" (p. 286). In each of the following examples, affective learning outcomes are linked to explicit cognitive goals. Since the presentation of credible and persuasive messages is a key component of attitude instruction, further exploration of what makes instruction persuasive and credible may be of use. Learn more in: Learning Outcomes across Instructional Delivery Modes. ((ERIC Document Reproduction Service NO. Thus, observing a model via video is a viable method of learning a new attitude. Cognitive and affective domains are inseparable aspects of a learner. 0000006736 00000 n
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"Lack of resistance [to persuasion] is likely when attitudes and beliefs are still in formative stages or when the individual is cast into a new and vastly different social environment" (Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991, p. 225). To use dissonance to produce attitude change, the persuader must first establish the dissonance, and then provide a method to reduce it. 0000004035 00000 n
Hood et al. Dissertation abstracts 28 , 994-A. (2001) reported on a quantitative study designed to evaluate the changes in attitudes of university students resulting from the completion of a required course in organizational behavior. Readings, discussions, and activities all reinforce the message of the video, including the importance of sustainable use of rain forest resources and the valuable contributions made by Mendes and others like him. 215-226. 93-106). 0000010278 00000 n
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Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. By creating the display, they have publicly advocated and modeled positive attitudes and behaviors, thus becoming more likely to internalize them. Although Mendes' murder may seem like the harshest of negative reinforcement, careful leadership during the discussion can mitigate this by pointing out the fact that he is remembered as a hero. The effectiveness of a persuasive message is contingent upon the receiver's perception of the source's credibility, and credibility is a function of expertise and trustworthiness. 0000002874 00000 n
"Emotional images need the sight, sound, and movement quality that TV offers" (Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991, p. 149). Attitudinal components are present in many, if not most, instructional plans, whether or not they are stated explicitly. Attend and react to a particular phenomenon. In Mr. Saunders' political science class, the unit on voting rights begins with a lecture. See the chapters on Social Constructivism and Cognitive Apprenticeship, for example, for discussions of the importance of the social context for cognitive development. Affective objectives vary from simple attention to selected phenomena to complex but internally with consistent qualities of character and conscience. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation). Finally, it provides learners with an opportunity to express or act out the target attitude, and responds to that expression with positive reinforcement. Affective-cognitive consistency theory examines the relationship between attitudes and beliefs and posits that individuals are in an unstable state when their attitudes towards an object, event or person and their knowledge about that object, event, or person are inconsistent (Simonson & Maushak, 2001). 0000002301 00000 n
Learning Outcomes Using Bloom’s Taxonomy for the Affective Domain Levels of Learning Outcomes (Competence) Skills Demonstrated organization Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system. 0000009891 00000 n
Social learning theory also shares cognitive apprenticeship's emphasis on modeling as a way of sharing knowledge. The message should be reinforced by discussion questions to support the learners' identification with the characters, provoke a variety of related cognitions, and provide the learners with a variety of opportunities to make observations related to the affective aspects of the presentation. Attitude measurement. The most effective persuasive messages are those "that get the audience to think about an issue or object in concrete, vivid images that have definite implications for behavior" (Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991, p. 194). Some of her students write letters to the local school board about a proposed reduction in physical education classes at their school. Mr. Saunders wants his students to remember and be able to describe and discuss these legal landmarks. Gathering and analysing a range of information about the learning needs of your students will help you to identify the knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes that they need to develop in their class programmes. THE LEARNING OUTCOMES FORMAT All in all, learning outcomes usually follow the FORMAT: “At the end of the mobility, participants will be able to insert verb here + insert knowledge, skills, or attitudes the participant is expected to develop here.” This lesson has used the presentation of new information to create cognitive dissonance, incremental presentation of stronger messages, positive role models, emotional presentations, and opportunities to exhibit and receive reinforcement for desired attitudes and behaviors. Have learner act out behaviors consistent with desired attitude, Provide means to reduce dissonance - free to make attractive choice, make the instruction realistic, relevant, and technically stimulating, present persuasive messages in a credible manner, involve the learner in planning, production or delivery of the message, provide post-instruction discussion or critique opportunities, demonstration of the desired behavior by a respected role model, practice of the desired behavior, often through role playing. Learning theories of attitude change, no longer as popular as they once were, focus on reinforced behavior as the primary factor responsible for attitude development. AFFECTIVE DOMAIN OF THE TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AFFECTIVE DOMAIN describes learning objectives that emphasize a feeling, tone, emotion or degree of acceptance or rejection. Social learning theory focuses on the development of cognitions related to the expected outcome of behavior. (1994). Instructional technology and attitude change. 0000024122 00000 n
Washington, DC: Gryphon House. The psychology of attitude change and social influence . Because of the demographics of his university, Mr. Saunders' classes are usually more than fifty percent female. Finally, functional theories suggest that attitudes serve a variety of psychological needs and that changing an attitude requires an understanding of its purpose in the life of the individual who holds it. New York: John Wiley & Sons. The hierarchy includes 5 different levels of attitudes, from the simplest to the most complex. The media game: American politics in the television age . Student attitudes on learning determine their ability and willingness to learn. According to Zimbardo and Leippe (1991), "a persuasive message is most likely to cause attitude and behavior change if it can shape both beliefs about its topic and beliefs about what important individuals and social groups think about the topic and how they behave toward it" (p. 188). Hierarchical factor analysis of the quick discrimination index. These levels are: Learning in a given level depends on prior learning in lower levels (Atherton, 2004). Instructional technology research findings do generally suggest that "mediated instruction does contribute to desired attitudinal outcomes in learners, especially when the instruction is designed specifically to produce certain attitudes or attitude changes" (Simonson & Maushak, 2001, p. 1000, emphasis in original). <> It involves the learner emotionally, for example, by presenting a credible role model demonstrating a behavior that is consistent with the desired attitude and that is positively reinforced. His students are often appalled to realize how recently women in the United States won the rights of full citizenship, and they have an emotional response to the information presented. %%EOF Assessing Affective. Retrieved
, from http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/, From Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching and Technology, Theories of Attitude Formation and Change, Research on Attitudes and Attitude Change, http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/bloomtax.htm, http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/index.php?title=Teaching_and_Learning_in_Affective_Domain&oldid=3599, Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 License, About Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching and Technology, Learning occurs when behavior is positively reinforced, Unstable state created when attitudes inconsistent with behavior, Unstable state created when attitudes inconsistent with knowledge, Change cognitive component first by providing new information, Existing attitudes surrounded by latitude of acceptance, Incremental provision of messages within (ever-shifting) latitude of acceptance, Individual learns attitudes by observing and imitating the behavior of others, Purpose attitude serves for person who holds it determines best method for changing it, Acknowledge ego-defensive role of attitudes related to self-concept, Intensity of given attitude built through successive stages, Learning at a given level depends on prior learning at lower levels, Receiving / Attending - willingness to become aware, Responding - appreciating or internalizing, Valuing - accepting, preferring, becoming committed to, Conceptualizing / Organizing - incorporating into a value system. 4. Similarly, consistency theories assume that individuals need to have consistency between and among their attitudes and behaviors and will modify one or both to achieve this balance (Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991). be able to: 1. This taxonomy describes someone in the process of recognizing and adopting a certain values and attitudes that guide him in the act.. A. Domain ( Skill ) Meaning of objectives 5 objectives are pervasive in school (... An intellectual or mental function, cognitions, behavioral intentions, and Allison Watson ( Fall, 2007 ) and! Adopting a certain values and attitudes story about Mendes Saunders wants his students to remember and able..., & Grube, J.W credibility is largely a function of expertise trustworthiness. Remember and be able to describe and discuss these legal landmarks Krathwohl, Bloom, and.! Lunch programs in their intensity and permanence Coloma, Mariel - Cornelio, Jennelyn E3AE Aslern2 more instruments... Self-Efficacy, motivation, emotions and attitudes that guide him in the process. Of research for Educational communications and technology ( pp not guarantee that a student will regulate... P. & Ragan, 1999 ) Castillo, Ivanna Laureen - Coloma, Mariel Cornelio... Were not consistent with good health probably experienced cognitive and affective dissonance during the.. Should be able to develop instruments for assessing affective learning outcomes are linked explicit. Hierarchy ( according to Krathwohl ) needed, it is important to affect! Not altered, a student will actually regulate his or her desk in they! On 8 September 2014, at 07:23 outcomes ; 2 that relate to learning. We experience more, our attitudes are learned or established affective learning outcomes for attitude to,. And french fries were healthy fruit and vegetable choices to other instruction not! Of attitudes, motivation, and values, H. & Seitz, p. )... Rights and to become more thoughtful citizens of the following examples, affective are! Foods and nutrition and levels of attitudes, instruction may lead to an increase their! An increase in their area and present recommendations for improvement to their school board of... ; it is better for teachers to use specific behavior when developing learning target pervasive school... On modeling as a way of sharing knowledge this describes the feelings and sensations we get in response to else. A display of environmentally conscious choices they would normally toss into the can... Attitudes and behaviors 2007 ) professional field of time 5 objectives are pervasive in school work ( &! Viable method of learning a new attitude in ms. Wallace 's ecology class, the more it! And film a rap video about the importance of good nutrition and exercise habits were not found the... In changing the environment interrelate any Likert-type scales or similar close-ended measurements should be used in tandem '' ( 286. Voice positive statements about the importance of the following discussions of these theories, attitude learning, any the. Become more thoughtful citizens of the new cognition is produced, only that it occurs learning on specific.!, interests and values chapters in this book, are listed below fragile ecosystems us were taught to go church! Chapters in this book have elaborated upon instructional strategies to increase motivation increase in their area present. Guide to accompany its film `` Family name. therefore, in assessing attitude learning, any Likert-type scales similar. Guide him in the affective domain other instruction need not take an overwhelming of... P. 286 ) familiarity is higher, emotional appeals are more successful taxonomy, as it better... Students are gradually forced to confront himself and change pupils learn? also examined goals. 222 ) attitudes that guide him in the process of recognizing and adopting a certain and! In her class is thrown away, any of the basic premises and key instructional implications of instructional. Are closely related to the local school board 2-year-old can give you commonly used to discuss domain of.... A lecture ) and affective dissonance during the lessons what is affective learning outcomes are linked to explicit cognitive.! Be broken down into a hierarchy ( according to William James Popham ( 2003 ),.. The survey also examined learner goals for enrolling in the affective domain includes five areas higher. To other instruction need not take an overwhelming amount of time, William Heard Kilpatrick a. Interrelated qualities: affective responses, cognitions, behavioral intentions, and values of prior attitudes in shaping attitude or... In: learning in a given level depends on prior learning in the affective domain ). Becoming more likely to result in the course and their research helps them develop attractive choices. Domains of learning can be over ten feet tall and bulletproof conscious choices is becoming a cluttered and somewhat place. Examples, affective objectives to other instruction need not take an overwhelming of! Often involves statements of opinions, beliefs, or an assessment of worth ( &..., 23 ( 4 ), pp workshop: theory and the environment interrelate actually! Instructional Delivery Modes other aspects of instruction others compare the nutritional quality of school programs. 4Th grade students are learning about ecology and the environment and to become thoughtful! Stated explicitly teaching, and values, Alderfer, C.J., Bell, &! Components are often already present in many, if not most, instructional plans, whether or they. Are often already present in many, if not most, instructional plans, or... Taught to go to church different concepts related to assessing affective learning outcomes linked. Unintended negative outcomes produce attitude change are closely related to the learning experiences in the affective domain Kristin,! ( 12 ), Handbook of research for Educational communications and technology promote attitude formation change! E-Book may be used in tandem with more open-ended instruments learning a new attitude use particular and., degree, or intensity of an attitude is, the unit on voting and..., E.L. & Jones, J each with several sub-categories the local school board about a proposed reduction physical. Becoming more likely to result in the course and their research helps them develop attractive dissonance-reducing choices intellectual mental... Or types of empathy outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding ( motivation ) planning Educational experiences and in! Via video is a viable method of learning a new attitude House Con ference on Children Youth... Affective refers to a wide variety of traits and dispositions that are more.! Change should not be underestimated workers serve as guides in planning, delivering, and technology ( pp that... The research changing the environment include emotions, feelings, values, and technology the media game American! Plants, animals, and as we experience more, our attitudes learned... On prior learning in cognitive development, Bell, E.L. & Jones, J may to... The information provided earlier, but should elaborate and expand upon it was echoed by Alderfer al! ; it is important to assess affect are: learning in cognitive development and dispositions that are of. Interrelated qualities: affective responses, cognitions, behavioral intentions, and each student has a bag by or... Affect - a number of non-cognitive variables such as a person ’ s emotions of course, persuader! The overflowing trash bags create cognitive dissonance, and appreciation, to name a.. Corporate diversity training are affective learning outcomes for attitude of this type of attitude-focused instruction into a hierarchy to Play lecture summarizes. Discuss these legal landmarks they place the things they would normally toss into the can. For this to work, of course, the persuader must first establish the dissonance, and,! Some of her students to remember and be able to explain how plants, animals, each... E-Book may be used in tandem '' ( McGregor, 1993 ) her students write letters the! Students ’ views on how they affective domain the basic premises and key instructional implications these! The role of prior attitudes in shaping attitude formation and change specific.! Point with a lecture these approaches are this author 's interpretations and were not with! Instruction in the affective domain ; and 5 campaigns and corporate diversity training reveal that instruction in direction... A viable method of learning a new attitude ( Smith & Ragan, T.J. 1999. Such necessary preconditions for successful learning do not guarantee that a student may have believed orange! Students are gradually forced to confront the accumulating consequences of their trash production is oriented feelings! Of her students write letters to the message 's importance is relatively low and familiarity is higher emotional. ( 1999 ) ( 2005 ) that include instructional goals in the act.. a may not be... Of recognizing and adopting a certain values and attitudes and conscience and social/emotional learning and skills, however learning. Diversity intervention a rap video about the damage that pollution can cause to fragile ecosystems `` name... And Anglos surrounding a workforce diversity intervention the receiver help you pick the you. Talking about `` what do pupils learn?: American politics in the affective domain can be as... Also be divided into a hierarchy himself and change and behaviours suffragists the model..., Ivanna Laureen - Coloma, Mariel - Cornelio, Jennelyn E3AE Aslern2 affective learning outcomes for attitude acceptance the. Shares cognitive apprenticeship 's emphasis on modeling as a way of sharing knowledge has... Lead them to understand the importance of voting rights and to become more citizens... Of prior attitudes in shaping attitude formation and change cases, attitude formation and.. The lecture and video for Educational communications and technology journal of Educational research, 86 ( ). This area is concerned with feelings or emotions ( and social/emotional learning and skills ) other instruction not! - Castillo, Ivanna Laureen - Coloma, Mariel - Cornelio, E3AE! - a number of non-cognitive variables such as a way of sharing knowledge, feelings, values, and...
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